The Offerings
WHAT‘S HAPPENING
The animals to be offered were prepared the night before the ritual took place and are now mounted on stands inside the temple where the libations take place. In addition to the animal sacrifices, the Autumnal Sacrifice centers around a feast laid out for the spirits. These offerings are prepared ahead of time and, in the first two hours after midnight on the morning of the ceremony, the ritual officers, instructors, and assistants arrange the vessels and offerings in front of the altar. Once offered to the spirits by the consecration officer, these offerings are regarded as blessed.
Announcing the Ceremony
WHAT’S HAPPENING
The beginning of the ceremony is announced. In the background, fireworks are set off to indicate the beginning of the ceremony. The ritual officers, dancers, and others involved in the ritual are asked to line up and prepare to enter the temple. The warning drum announces the beginning of the ceremony. As the drum beats, the participants of the sacrificial rite enter the temple in an orderly fashion and take their positions. Although we cannot see it here, the officers file into various smaller altars, as well as the main hall. As the main sacrifice to Confucius happens, a number of smaller sacrifices occur on the periphery.
Warning Drum
The rhythmic sounding of the warning drum begins the ceremony, which sets the musical pattern for the remainder of the ceremony. As described in more detail on the close-up of the instruments, music plays a significant role in Confucian ritual. The hymns used in the ritual are all symmetrical in construction; first, the sound of wood to initiate the hymn, and then a bronze bell began each measure and a jade chime concluded each measure. At the conclusion of the hymn, the sound of wood ends the song. During the hymn, a drum, considered the sound of skin, punctuated the measure. (Wilson, The Cultic Confucius in the Imperial Temple and Ancestral Shrine).
Ritual Officers
There’s a large number of ritual officers involved in this ceremony. Just to give you an idea about the number of people involved in this ritual and how much coordination it requires to perform, here are some of the main participants: Principal Consecration officer, Eastern Cloister Consecration officer, Western Cloister Consecration officer, Eastern Savants, Western Savants, Secondary Eastern Cloister officer, Secondary Western Cloister officer, Local officials Consecration officer, Loyal and Filial Consecration officer, Wenchang Consecration officer, Ritual Tutor, Prayer singer, Invocator, and the ritual dancers.
Peripheral Sacrifices
From early on, the sacrifice to Kongzi did not consist simply of a sacrifice to Kongzi; rather, the ritual also consisted of offerings to Kongzi’s disciples and correlates. According to Wilson, the Jin (265-316) offered an ox, goat, and pig to Kongzi and his seventy-two disciples, which was based on the Record of Rites.
Burying the Blood and Fur
WHAT’S HAPPENING
Two ritual officers take the blood and fur from the primary sacrifice to bury outside the main temple gate. As incorporeal, yet discrete beings, the spirits were attracted to the ceremonial site by the scent of the blood and fur. In addition to attracting the spirits, the burying of the blood and fur also informed the spirits that a full animal was being offered.
Sacrificial Large Beast
Traditionally, the main sacrificial victim is chosen and carefully tended to for a month prior to the ceremony. On the day before the ceremony, the sacrificial victims are brought to the “spirit kitchen,” an area typically in the back corner of the temple complex. A ritual officer inspects the kitchen utensils and ritual vessels for cleanliness and the victims for plumpness. Assuming everything is in order, the victims are then slaughtered. Some of the blood and fur from the sacrificial victims is set aside in a pan, later to be buried outside the main temple gates, and the animals are cleansed with boiling water. In this ceremony, the sacrificial victims were chosen beforehand at a slaughterhouse and killed there, rather than in the temple complex
Other Offerings
Although the fur and blood lured spirits to the feast initially, the majority of the sacrificial feast consisted of simple fare. Canonical sources admonished those who offered extravagant or expensive foods; spirits preferred simple fare, including unseasoned broth, grains, and edible grasses. The meat that was served was typically raw or dried. Prior to the ceremony, a ritually purified officer consecrates the offerings.
Escorting the Spirit
WHAT’S HAPPENING
After the blood and fur are buried outside the temple’s main gate and the spirits are attracted to the feast site, ritual officers escort the newly arrived spirits into the temple as the Illumination Hymn is orchestrated. After the spirits have been escorted into the temple, the ritual officers perform three bows (ke-tows) and the primary sacrificer offers incense. Following this initial offer, all officers return to their original positions.
Illumination Hymn
The Illumination Hymn heard in the background says,
Great is Master Kong
Equal to Heaven and Earth
Teacher of myriad generations
Auspiciously summoned by the unicorn’s seal
Bells and string harmoniously resound
The risen sun and moon announce,
Heaven (qian) and Earth (kun) are pure and calm
Unicorn’s Seal
While the first three lines of the Illumination Hymn are fairly self-explanatory, the mention of being “auspiciously summoned by the unicorn’s seal” is slightly more obscure. Kongzi had an intimate connection with the unicorn on several different levels. Kongzi prophesied the end of the Zhou dynasty after finding a lin, a one-horned animal with the body of a deer and tail of an ox, fatally wounded. Upon finding the dying lin, Kongzi believed that its appearance signified the demise of his Dao.
According to noncanonical commentaries, Kongzi’s discovery of the unicorn signified the end of the Zhou dynasty and the imminent arrival of an enlightened ruler. In another noncanonical source, Kongzi prophecies that a man named Liu will become king. The unicorn spits out a book confirming Kongzi’s prophecy and demands that Kongzi establish and write the regulations for the coming king. As a result of this encounter, Kongzi wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals.
Kongzi’s Title
In the Illumination Hymn, they sing “Great is Master Kong/Equal to Heaven and Earth,” indicating Kongzi’s importance and superiority. Following Kongzi’s death, the court honored him by conferring upon him titles of nobility, first as duke and later as king. By granting him these titles, the imperial court endorsed Kongzi and Confucianism and allowed him to receive imperial sacrifices. His final title was Geat Completer, Ultimate Sage, Exalted First Teacher of Culture, but he had a number of different titles which can be found in a chronology of canonization.
Ritual as a Means of Harmony
The last three lines of the Illumination Hymn say, “Bells and string harmoniously resound/The risen sun and moon announce/Heaven and Earth are pure and calm.” For Confucians, ritual is more than a simple ceremony; ritual is how one maintains order and harmony in the world. Confucianism emphasizes the importance of virtuous rule through benevolence and proper conduct. This proper conduct is called li, or ritual, and focuses on purity, sincerity, and harmony. Ritual is understood as a way to return to the simplicity of past days and restore balance. If people were all virtuous and conducted themselves properly, Heaven bestowed good fortune upon everyone.
First Offering
WHAT’S HAPPENING
The first thing shown is a closeup of the Hymnal Record. As the Proclamation Hymn plays in the background, the six rows of six dancers perform. The dancers all have a pheasant feather and reed pipe. The primary ritual officer performs the first sacrifice. After bowing (ke tou), he first offers incense. Next, he offers the silk damask. Finally, he offers the wine, or libation. To end the offering, he bows three times to the altar.
Proclamation Hymn
We cherish his brilliant virtue;
Jades chime, bells respond
After it was determined that the sacrifice to Kongzi would follow the regulations of the imperial sacrifices at the Altar of Soils and Grains, the sacrifice required six rows of dancers and three racks of hanging bells and jade chimes. At this time, Kongzi’s rank in the sacrificial hierarchy was upper lord; in 723, however, the sacrifices were accompanied by four racks of bells and chimes. Shortly afterward in 739, Kongzi’s title was elevated to king. In this particular occurrence, two rows of bells and chimes are used.
During the Ming, ritualists elevated Kongzi’s ritual status by sacrificing to him as though he were king. Arguing that Kongzi’s cap and robe were already appropriate for an emperor, they argued that the number of ritual dancers was inconsistent and instead corresponded to a feudal lord. In 1477, the court granted Zhou’s request and Kongzi received twelve sacrificial vessels and eight rows of dancers, rather than the previous ten vessels and six rows.
Formation of the Liturgy
The first state temple devoted to Kongzi was built in the Liu-Song (420-479), but it is unclear when the imperial court began observing a codified liturgy in Confucian temples. Early records indicate that the imperial cult was undergoing a gradual formation during the North-South division and the Sui History describes a full liturgy for a Venerable Kong Temple at the court of the Latter Qi (550-77).
During the Tang, detailed codes for sacrifices to Kongzi were established and later used as the basis of the liturgy used throughout imperial China. These codes were developed from canonical texts of ritual and stated that Kongzi and the other spirits in the main hall received three offerings. The first offering was presented by the crown prince, while the second and final offerings by the two top officials of the Directorate of Education, the Libationer and Director of Studies. Though developed during the Tang, the ritual procedures and offerings changed slightly throughout imperial China. In this occurrence of the ritual, the same person presents all three of the main offerings to Kongzi.
Six Rows of Six Dancers
The number of dancers present during a ceremony was indicative of the importance, or level, of the ceremony. During the Liu-Song in 445, the court set the number of rows of dancers at six, which was the appropriate number for ceremonies honoring dukes.
Confucius said of the Ji Family, “They have eight rows of dancers performing in their courtyard. If they can condone this, what are they not capable of? According to later ritual texts, different ranks in society were allowed different numbers of dancers to perform outside the ancestral hall during ceremonial occasions: the Son of Heaven allowed eight rows of eight dancers, feudal lords six rows, ministers four rows, and official two rows…his use of eight dancers thus represented an outrageous usurpation of the ritual prerogatives of the Zhou king” Analects 3.1
The first attempt to standardize music and dance was in 485. Emperor Wu (r. 479-502) ordered a performance of the Confucian Ceremonial, but found that the ritual and musical procedures were not yet standardized. At this point, the standardization of music and dance for the ritual ceremony began and the dance was choreographed in the six-row format, performed by thirty-six dancers in six rows of six.
Toward the end of the Eastern Han, the ritual sacrifice to Confucius was determined to follow the regulations of the imperial sacrifices at the Altar of Soils and Grains. During this time, Kongzi’s rank in the court sacrificial hierarchy was “upper lord” (shang hou), which required the six rows of six dancers.
During the imperial sacrifice, the most promising students traditionally performed the ceremonial dance of the ‘Six Rows’ in front of the Hall of Great Completion. In this particular ritual, the young boys were selected from a local school to perform the dance.
Reading the Prayer
WHAT’S HAPPENING
After the first offering, the prayer honoring Kongzi is read. Throughout the rest of the ceremony, multiple things are happening at once, but during the reading of the prayer all other activity ceases.
The Prayer
Let it be said:
In the Chinese Republic’s 87th year, on the 28th day of the 9th month,
Principle Consecration Officer of the Tainan Municipal Assembly, Secretary Lin Qinggui
Secondary Consecration Officer, Chairman of Tainan Municipal Assembly, Huang Yuwen,
President of Chenggong University, Weng Zhengyi,
Tainan Normal University’s president, Wu Tieyong,
Principal of Tainan Qichong Academy, Ye Wenrong,
President of the Tainan Kong-Meng Society, Guo Tengji,
Principal of the Tainan Wenxian Middle School, Wang Maode,
And of the Tainan Culture Temple Management He Peifu, Xiao Qiangrui, Lin Kaiden
Supervising Rites officer, Tainan Director of Education, Zheng Xingui
And assisting officers from other organizations…do hereby draw from the unalterable ceremonies reverently offer sacrifice before the spirit tablet of the supreme sage of great completion and first teacher Master Kong, proclaim:
“The First Teacher’s virtue transforms and nurtures, his Dao pervades at all times, his virtue attends to Heaven and Earth for 10,000 generations and a thousand years. He completes the accumulated wisdom of the myriad sages, his prescience is bequeathed as a foundation. Since the birth of the people, there has been one such as he!
The mind of the six canons endures a thousand epochs!
All under Heaven is a commonweal!
It has nurtured the people of China, illumined fortune and beauty.
We enter the temple and ascend to the hall, raise up the vessels and take up our instruments. He must be rectified and illumined, the lofty regulations. This lofty sage’s domain is always regulated, authentic, and orderly. We endeavor to follow the regulations and statues, solemnly reveal the minute and obscure, and refined in the sacrificial statues and hereby offer sacrifice to the Restoring Sage Master Yan, reverer of the sage, Master Zeng, the following sage, Master Zisi, and the second sage, Mencius, each in proper sequence.
Their names are all in order. There is none who does not personally revere them. The rites and music complete the performance of the rite. We hereby offer up this sacrifice.”
The Dao/The Way
At the center of Confucian teachings is the idea of the Dao, or the Way. Confucians tended to believe that everyone was innately good–with the exception of Xunzi and his followers, who believed that human nature was innately evil–and the goal was to cultivate that goodness by following the Way. Every object in the world is composed of both li (principle) and qi (psychophysical stuff). Everyone is endowed with the same li, which was bestowed by Heaven and was thus good. Qi, on the other hand, existed in everyone, but the quality of qi varied drastically. For some, their qi was perfectly clear, which allowed them to act in accordance with their Heavenly principle and be consistently moral–these people were considered sages. For others, however, qi was turbid and thus obscured their principle causing them to give in to desires and act immorally.
Sages
A Confucian sage is an individual who has innate understanding of moral principle without having to make any effort. A sage is one who is perfectly balanced and who acts in perfect accordance with his nature and principle, or li. As the prayer states, the sage’s domain is “always regulated, authentic, and orderly,” which allows him to help effect harmony and accord. Additionally, sages are known for correctly understanding and transmitting the Dao. Over time, the conception of what a sage was changed dramatically. Some Confucian thinkers believed that men were either born as sages or not, while others, such as Zhu Xi, believed that anyone could become a sage if they applied themselves to learning.
Offering to Correlates
WHAT’S HAPPENING
The chief consecration officer offers up libation and bows three times to the altar, offering the secondary sacrifices. Throughout the ceremony, ritual officers are in small alcoves in the temple complex performing sacrifices to correlates, disciples, savants, and canon exegetes (or masters of the canon). In the main temple, the primary ritual consecrator offers sacrifice to the sages Mencius and Zengzi, as well as Kongzi’s disciples and Zhu Xi.
Sages, Correlates, Savants, Worthies, and Scholars
The main sacrifice is, clearly, to Kongzi, but some sages, include Mengzi and Zisi, are also honored in the central prayer. In the secondary sacrifices shown here, the primary consecration officer offers up the secondary sacrifices to the appropriate sages and correlates in the main temple area. Typically, the sages, correlates, and savants have their altars in the main house, while the worthies and scholars are housed in the eastern and western cloisters.
In early imperial times, the masters and “former sages” did not refer to a fixed group, nor did it include Kongzi. By the Han, however, the groups became recognized as the founding masters of Rites, Music, Odes, and Documents, while the sages were understood as the ancient sage-kings and founding rulers of the ancient dynasties. Kongzi was inserted into the hierarchy of deities, spirit cults, and temple liturgies and, just as he was subject to changing titles, the sages, correlates, savants, worthies, and scholars were also subject to revision. By late imperial times, however, the sages were established as Master Yan, Master Zeng, Master Si, and Master Meng. For more, please see a chronology of the canonization of Kongzi and chronology of enshrinement.
The offerings made to the sages follows the same ritual procedures as those for Kongzi: incense, silk, and wine is offered up to each of the four correlates. While this is occuring, two consecrators perform the remaining sacrifices to the savants in the main hall and six consecrators perform the sacrifices to the worthies and scholars in the eastern and western cloisters. Altogether, four sages (Master Yan, Master Zeng, Master Si [Kong Ji], and Master Meng [Mencius]), four correlates, twelve savants, twenty-seven worthies, and forty-six scholars are honored and receive offerings in this ritual.
Second & Final Offering
WHAT’S HAPPENING
The Ordering Hymn plays in the background. Similar to the first offering, the primary consecration officer bows to the altar and offers up silk and wine. To finish the second offering, he bows three times. Accompanying the final offering is the Enunciation Dance and Hymn.
The Ordering Hymn
Perform the rite without err;
Ascend the Hall for the second offering
Drums and bells sound in accord;
Genuine, the wine cauldron
Sincere, the food pots
Solemn novices,
Majestic scholars
The rites correct us, the music refines us;
Made virtuous are we who observe this rite
Wine, Silk, and Animals
In imperial China, the status of the spirit dictated what level of sacrifice should be used. The Autumnal Sacrifice to Confucius features the large beast sacrifice, or san sheng. The use of the large beast sacrifice, which consists of offering an ox, goat, and pig, signifies Kongzi’s high rank in the spiritual pantheon. Traditionally, each of the correlates was offered a small beast sacrifice of a goat and pig, while the savants shared a pig. The remaining spirits–the scholars and worthies–shared a pig.
In addition to the animal sacrifices, all spirits were presented with varying amounts of wine; Kongzi receives several tripods of wine, while the worthies and scholars shared three goblets of wine.
Silk damasks were used in the ritual offerings. Before the use of coinage and later paper currency, silk was the standard of exchange among the living. Accordingly, silk was offered up as currency for spirits to use in the afterlife.
Enunciation Dance and Hymn
From antiquity in days of yore,
The earliest people rise up
In deerskin caps they offered food
Dances
While music was considered to be the sonic embodiment of the ritual, so too were the dances understood as choreographic embodiments of the ritual. During the ritual, three dances are performed to accompany the six hymns. Each of the dances was carefully choreographed to properly correspond to the music. Dancers all held a pheasant feather and a reed pipe, which they utilized in their complex and deliberate dances. Just as each hymn was composed according to strict regulations, each dance consisted of ninety-six standardized postures. The transitions between positions were often subtle and required intense concentration to properly balance the reed pipes and feathers. Given the early time and the increasing difficulty of the three sequences, a young boy almost invariably fainted, including in this specific ritual performance. Each of the three dances accompanied one of the offerings during the Proclamation Hymn (First Offering), Ordering Hymn (Second Offering), and the Enunciation Hymn (Final Offering).
Instruments
WHAT’S HAPPENING
We see here some of the instruments used in this ritual. Some of the instruments pictured are the bronze bells, hand drums, and the zither. Music is an integral part of Confucian ritual, serving not only as a counterpart to ritual, but also representing the sonic embodiment of human heart/mind.
Music as Sonic Embodiment
“Music! O music! Does it mean no more than bells and drums?” Analects
For Confucius, music was more than pleasant sound. In addition to being the counterpart of ritual, music was considered the sonic embodiment of human heart/minds (xin). How music gained such significance is illustrated in the famous story of Confucius learning to play a piece for the seven-string zither.
Having learned the notes of the piece, Confucius continued practicing. Shi Xiang, a music master of the state of Lu, told Confucius that he had learned the piece and could begin learning new works. Confucius, however, refused to learn new pieces, saying that he had only mastered the sounds, but had not fully comprehended the piece. After a period of continued practice, Shi Xiang told Confucius that he had comprehended the structure, but again, Confucius believed that he understood the piece’s intention. Confucius continued his tireless practicing until he realized that the piece sonically embodied King Wen. This understanding that each piece of music is the sonic embodiment of something is critical to the understanding of the role of music in Confucian ritual.
Traditionally, there are six fixed songs and three dances that have been chosen for this ritual. These songs and dances have been carefully selected as sonic and choreographic embodiments of specific ritual meanings during the worship of Confucius.
Music During the Ritual
Music is present throughout the entire ritual, with the exception of during the reading of the prayer after the first offering. Music is used during the ceremony to denote the structural points of the ceremony the drum announces the beginning of the ceremony, the hymns mark the ritual stages, and the music accompanies the carefully choreographed dances.
The songs performed during the ceremony are incredibly standardized in their form. Each phrase of a song begins with the bell-chimes and ends with stone-chimes. The song is sung in phrases of four words because proper music was expected to have proper accompanying text and the text should be shaped into the correct classical four-word phrases.
Musical Instruments
Like all other aspects of Confucianism, a large component of music is its ability to be balanced and harmonious, particularly in respect to yin and yang. Accordingly, the instruments used in Confucian ritual are selected for their tonal and physical qualities. The jade chimes are the yin component because they symbolize earth, while the the bronze bells are metal and symbolize yang. Because the bronze bell is yang, the bronze bell initiates the beginning of a song or measure, while the yin jade bells concludes a measure or song. The sequence of yang and yin reflects the order of yin and yang in the world; the male yang initiates things in the universe, while the female yin receives and completes all things.
Receiving the Meat and Wine
WHAT’S HAPPENING
After the three offerings have been made, the principal consecration officer receives a portion of the meat and wine that had been offered up.
Receiving the Meat and Wine
The primary consecration officer drinks some of the blessed wine and receives a portion of the meat to take home. Through the drinking of the wine and receipt of the meat, the principal consecration officer receives the blessings from the ceremony. As this occurs, the dancers have stopped in the background and hold their pheasant feather perfectly vertical and crossing it with the reed pipe, holding this position for the remainder of the ceremony. Upon drinking the wine and receiving the meat, the sacrifice is complete. The only things left to complete the ceremony is to clear the feast, escort the spirits from the temple, and burn the prayer and silk.
Clearing the Feast
WHAT’S HAPPENING
As the Gathering Hymn is played in the background, the feast is cleared and the spirits are informed of its removal. Upon the removal of the feast, the spirits are escorted out of the temple in a similar manner to their entrance.
Gathering Hymn
The first master said
After offered sacrifice one receives the blessed meat
At the schools within the four seas,
Who would dare not reverently receive it?
The rite is done and the spirit informed of the feast’s removal
No one is careless, no one is crass
What the music has produced,
Therein lies our simple fare
Towering mountains,
Flowing Zhu and Si rivers;
Our journey through the Sages noble terrain ends now
But the beneficence flows onward without end.
Now, having enacted the sacrificial services,
The services are luminous and bright.
Transformed are our people,
Nurtured are our schools.
Concluding the Ritual
The Gathering Hymn sums up the purpose and actions of the ritual that has just taken place. In this final hymn, several points are emphasized, including the importance of sincerity in performing rituals. No one is careless, no one is crass suggests that everyone must be wholly devoted and invested in the ritual to ensure its efficacy. Because the rite has been enacted properly with the appropriate respect, demeanor, and sincerity, the spirits must reverently receive the offerings. Furthermore, the role of music is once again discussed–the music, as a form of ordering, has produced the simple fare and offerings. Though the “journal through the Sage’s noble terrain“ has concluded, the effects of the sacrifice continue. By properly conducting this sacrifice, they have gained the good favor of Kongzi and his disciples, fellow sages, and worthies, who will all provide for the people in the coming times. As the “teacher of ten thousand generations”, Kongzi and the other recipients of this sacrifice will nurture the schools and provide peace and prosperity to the people. After the feast is cleared, the spirits are escorted out of the temple with Kongzi leading the way.
Burning the Prayer
WHAT’S HAPPENING
After the feast is cleared and the meat is received, the prayer that was read earlier is brought outside the main gate and burned.
Concluding the Ceremony
Though the prayer has already been read, the prayer is burned to ensure receipt of the prayer in the heavens. By burning the prayer, the smoke carries the message to the heavens and makes sure the intended recipients hear the prayer. Because spirits are ethereal, they have no use for material goods. As such, the silk, which was believed to be the currency in the afterlife, was also burned and carried up to the heavens via the similarly ethereal smoke.
After the conclusion of the sacrifice, members of the audience pull hair from the sacrificial ox. The hair is seen as a good luck charm and is brought home and sometimes placed on personal altars.